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• Principi pigmentacije: Veziva i otapala - što drži boju na mjestu i što joj omogućuje da teče

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  	So far in this series, we've written about the visible and tangible properties of paint — why paint has a certain shade, why it covers or doesn't cover, why it flows more easily or more slowly. This article is about what lies beneath it all: binders and solvents, the components that determine what remains on the surface when everything else evaporates.
  
  	  
  
  	1. What is a binder and what is its role
  
  	A binder is a component of paint that holds pigment and filler particles together and ensures their adhesion to the substrate. When the paint dries or sets, the binder forms a continuous film that encapsulates the pigment and protects it from mechanical and chemical influences. The binder determines most of the application properties of the finished paint: film flexibility, hardness, gloss, chemical resistance, adhesion and durability. Two coatings with the same pigment but different binders can behave completely differently — one may be flexible and waterproof, the other brittle and sensitive to moisture.
  
  	2. How a binder works — film formation
  
  	Depending on the type of binder, the film is formed in one of two basic ways:
  
  	• Physical drying
  
  	• Chemical crosslinking (polymerization) Acrylics technically undergo physical drying — water evaporates, and acrylic polymer particles combine into a film through a process called coalescence.
  
  	Once formed, the acrylic film is chemically stable and practically insoluble in water, but soluble in some organic solvents.
  
  	  
  
  	3. Types of binders
  
  	Acrylic binders
  
  	Acrylic binders are synthetic polymers dispersed in water (latex). They are the most widely used in modern use — they are used in acrylic paints for miniatures, wall paints, primers and varnishes. Characteristics:
  
  	• Water is the solvent — easy cleanup, low toxicity
  
  	• Fast drying — an advantage for working in layers, a disadvantage for wet-on-wet techniques
  
  	• Flexible and waterproof film after drying
  
  	• The color changes slightly when drying — acrylics are known to darken as they dry (due to a change in the refractive index of the binder)
  
  	Oil binders
  
  	Oil paints use drying oils as a binder — most often linseed oil, but also walnut, poppy and safflower. Each oil has slightly different properties: linseed oil dries the fastest and gives a strong film, but it can turn yellow over time; poppy and safflower oils are less yellow but dry more slowly. Features:
  
  	• Drying by oxidative polymerization — slow (hours to days), but the film is extremely durable
  
  	• Long open time — ideal for wet-on-wet techniques and mixing on the palette
  
  	• Rich, deep gloss that acrylics have difficulty reproducing
  
  	• Solvents are organic — mineral organic solvents (white spirit, xylene, etc.)
  
  	• Some pigments in oil-based paints can yellow over time due to the binder
  
  	Alkyd binders
  
  	Alkyds are synthetic polymers based on oils and acids — a kind of modernization of oil binders. They dry by oxidative polymerization like oils, but faster and with more predictable properties. They are common in industrial coatings, primers, and decorative paints for metal and wood. Characteristics:
  
  	• Faster drying than pure oils, but slower than acrylics
  
  	• Hard and resistant film — good chemical and mechanical resistance
  
  	• Solvents are organic — mineral organic solvents (white spirit, xylene, etc.)
  
  	• May turn yellow over time, similar to oil binders
  
  	Gum arabic and other water-soluble binders
  
  	Gum arabic is a natural resin used as a binder in watercolors and some inks. It is soluble in water and dries by physical drying — the film remains soluble in water even after drying, which is a characteristic of watercolors (possibility of reactivation). In the same category of water-soluble binders are casein (from milk), egg tempera (egg yolk as an emulsion of oil and water) and gouache binders. Each of them gives a different film with different properties.
  
  	  
  
  	4. What are solvents and what is their role
  
  	A solvent is a substance that dissolves or disperses a binder, thereby controlling the viscosity of the paint, enabling its application, and determining the drying speed. After application, the solvent evaporates — and this evaporation process is actually the first stage of “drying” the paint. It is important to distinguish a solvent from a thinner. A true solvent dissolves the binder — it molecularly breaks it down and homogeneously incorporates it into the solution. A thinner only lowers the viscosity, but does not necessarily dissolve the binder. In practice, these terms are often used interchangeably, but the difference becomes important when talking about compatibility.
  
  	5. Types of Solvents
  
  	Water
  
  	Water is a solvent for acrylic binders, gum arabic, and other water-soluble binders. The advantages are low toxicity, no flammability, and easy cleanup. Disadvantages include relatively slow evaporation compared to organic solvents and sensitivity to temperature and humidity — drying is significantly slowed down at low temperatures or high humidity.
  
  	Turpentine and mineral organic solvents
  
  	Turpentine is a natural distillate of coniferous resin and a traditional solvent for oil paints and alkyds. It has a characteristic odor and good solvating effect. Due to its strong odor and potential toxicity with prolonged exposure, in modern use it is increasingly being replaced by mineral organic solvents (white spirit, xylene, etc.) or odorless isoparaffin-based thinners. Mineral organic solvents are a fraction of petroleum with a slightly milder odor than turpentine, but similar properties. Odorless thinners are more refined and have minimal odor — more suitable for indoor use.
  
  	Isopropanol and ethanol
  
  	Alcohols are used as solvents for some types of inks, varnishes, and shellacs. Isopropanol (IPA) is widely available and is used for cleaning brushes, thinning alcohol-based inks, and various technical applications. It is not compatible with acrylic binders in large quantities — it can destabilize the emulsion.
  
  	6. Binder-solvent interaction
  
  	Each binder has its own compatible solvents — those that dissolve or disperse it properly. Using an incompatible solvent can lead to: • coagulation — the binder precipitates out of solution in the form of lumps • emulsion destabilization — the paint separates into phases • poor film formation — the paint does not bond properly, remains sticky, or peels • dissolution of previously applied layers — especially a problem with varnishes and topcoats A practical example: acrylic paints are water-based. Adding mineral spirits or turpentine to acrylic paint will not thin it — it will cause the binder to coagulate and destroy the paint. Conversely, adding water to oil paint does not thin it properly — water and oil do not mix.
  
  	7. Media, additives and retarders
  
  	Media are formulated additives that modify the properties of the paint without disturbing the ratio of the components. For acrylic paints, these can be: drying retarders (retarders) that extend the open time and enable wet-on-wet techniques, liquid media that lower viscosity while maintaining gloss, matte media that reduce gloss, or glaze media that increase transparency. For oil paints, the media can be: varnish (damar, mastic) which accelerates drying and gives shine, siccatives (driers) which chemically accelerate oxidative polymerization, but whose excessive use can cause the film to crack over time. General rule: media are formulated for specific binders and should not be used interchangeably. Acrylic paint medium will not work in oil paint and vice versa.
  
  	Conclusion
  
  	The binder is what makes the pigment and solvent into paint — it forms a film, holds the pigment to the substrate, and determines the durability of the coating. The solvent controls the viscosity and drying speed, but it must be compatible with the binder. Understanding this trio — pigment, binder, solvent — provides a solid foundation for understanding almost any paint or coating you will work with.
  "
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  	Dosad smo u ovoj seriji pisali o vidljivim i opipljivim svojstvima boje — o tome zašto boja ima određenu nijansu, zašto pokriva ili ne pokriva, zašto teče lakše ili teže. Ovaj tekst bavi se onim što je ispod svega toga: vezivima i otapalima, komponentama koje određuju što ostaje na podlozi kad sve ostalo ispari.
  
  	  
  
  	1. Što je vezivo i koja mu je uloga
  
  	Vezivo je komponenta boje koja drži čestice pigmenta i punila zajedno i osigurava njihovo prianjanje na podlogu. Kada boja osuši ili veže, vezivo formira kontinuirani film koji enkapsulira pigment i štiti ga od mehaničkih i kemijskih utjecaja. Vezivo određuje većinu uporabnih svojstava gotove boje: fleksibilnost filma, tvrdoću, sjaj, kemijsku otpornost, adheziju i trajnost. Dva premaza s istim pigmentom ali različitim vezivima mogu se ponašati potpuno drukčije — jedan može biti fleksibilan i vodootporan, drugi krhak i osjetljiv na vlagu.
  
  	2. Kako vezivo funkcionira — formiranje filma
  
  	Ovisno o vrsti veziva, film se formira na jedan od dva osnovna načina:
  
  	• Fizikalno sušenje
  
  	• Kemijsko umrežavanje (polimerizacija) Akrili tehnički prolaze kroz fizikalno sušenje — voda isparava, a čestice akrilnog polimera se spajaju u film procesom koji se zove koalescencija.
  
  	Jednom formirani akrilni film je kemijski stabilan i praktično neotopiv u vodi, ali topiv u nekim organskim otapalima.
  
  	  
  
  	3. Vrste veziva
  
  	Akrilna veziva
  
  	Akrilna veziva su sintetički polimeri dispergirani u vodi (lateks). Najrasprostranjenija su u suvremenoj upotrebi — koriste se u akrilnim bojama za minijature, zidnim bojama, temeljnim premazima i lakovima. Karakteristike: • Otapalo je voda — lako čišćenje, niska toksičnost • Brzo sušenje — prednost za rad u slojevima, mana za tehnike mokro-na-mokro • Fleksibilan i vodootporan film nakon sušenja • Boja se lagano mijenja pri sušenju — akrili su poznatih po tome da tamne dok se suše (zbog promjene indeksa refrakcije veziva)
  
  	Uljana veziva
  
  	Uljane boje koriste sušiva ulja kao vezivo — najčešće laneno ulje, ali i orašasto, makovo i saflorovo. Svako ulje ima nešto drugačija svojstva: laneno ulje suši najbrže i daje čvrst film, ali može s vremenom požutjeti; makovo i saflorovo ulje manje žute ali sporije suše. Karakteristike:
  
  	• Sušenje oksidativnom polimerizacijom — sporo (sati do dani), ali film je iznimno trajan
  
  	• Dugo otvoreno vrijeme — idealno za mokro-na-mokro tehnike i miješanje na paleti
  
  	• Bogat, duboki sjaj koji akrili teško reproduciraju • Otapala su organska — mineralna organska otapala (white spirit, ksilen i sl.)
  
  	• Neki pigmenti u uljanoj bazi mogu požutjeti s vremenom zbog veziva
  
  	Alkidna veziva
  
  	Alkidi su sintetički polimeri na bazi ulja i kiselina — svojevrsna modernizacija uljanih veziva. Suše oksidativnom polimerizacijom kao i ulja, ali brže i s predvidljivijim svojstvima. Česti su u industrijskim premazima, temeljnim bojama i dekorativnim bojama za metal i drvo. Karakteristike:
  
  	• Brže sušenje od čistih ulja, ali sporije od akrila
  
  	• Tvrd i otporan film — dobra kemijska i mehanička otpornost
  
  	• Otapala su organska — mineralna organska otapala (white spirit, ksilen i sl.)
  
  	• Mogu žutjeti s vremenom, slično uljanim vezivima
  
  	Guma arabika i druga vodotopiva veziva
  
  	Guma arabika je prirodna smola koja se koristi kao vezivo u akvarelima i nekim tintama. Topiva je u vodi i suši fizikalnim sušenjem — film ostaje topiv u vodi i nakon sušenja, što je karakteristika akvarela (mogućnost reaktiviranja). U istoj kategoriji vodotopivih veziva nalaze se i kazein (iz mlijeka), jajčana tempera (žumanjak jajeta kao emulzija ulja i vode) i gvaš veziva. Svako od njih daje drukčiji film s drukčijim svojstvima.
  
  	  
  
  	4. Što su otapala i koja je njihova uloga
  
  	Otapalo je tvar koja otapa ili dispergira vezivo i time kontrolira viskoznost boje, omogućuje njezino nanošenje i određuje brzinu sušenja. Nakon nanošenja, otapalo isparava — i taj proces isparavanja je zapravo “sušenje” boje u prvoj fazi. Važno je razlikovati otapalo od razrjeđivača. Pravo otapalo otapa vezivo — molekularno ga razgrađuje i homogeno uključuje u otopinu. Razrjeđivač samo snižava viskoznost, ali ne mora nužno otapati vezivo. U praksi se ovi pojmovi često koriste naizmjenično, ali razlika postaje važna kad se govori o kompatibilnosti.
  
  	5. Vrste otapala
  
  	Voda
  
  	Voda je otapalo za akrilna veziva, gumu arabiku i ostala vodotopiva veziva. Prednosti su niska toksičnost, nema zapaljivosti i lako čišćenje. Mane su relativno sporo isparavanje u usporedbi s organskim otapalima i osjetljivost na temperaturu i vlagu — pri niskim temperaturama ili visokoj vlazi sušenje se znatno usporava.
  
  	Terpentin i mineralna organska otapala
  
  	Terpentin je prirodni destilat smole četinjača i tradicionalno otapalo za uljane boje i alkide. Ima karakterističan miris i dobar solvatacijski učinak. Zbog jakog mirisa i potencijalne toksičnosti pri dugotrajnoj izložnosti, u modernoj upotrebi ga sve više zamjenjuju mineralna organska otapala (white spirit, ksilen i sl.) ili bezmirisni razrjeđivači na bazi izoparafina. Mineralna organska otapala su frakcija nafte s nešto blažim mirisom od terpentina, ali sličnim svojstvima. Bezorisni razrjeđivači su rafiniraniji i imaju minimalan miris — prikladniji za zatvorene prostore.
  
  	Izopropanol i etanol
  
  	Alkoholi se koriste kao otapala za neke vrste tinta, lakova i shellaca. Izopropanol (IPA) je široko dostupan i koristi se za čišćenje kistova, razrjeđivanje alkoholnih tinta i raznih tehničkih primjena. Nije kompatibilan s akrilnim vezivima u većim količinama — može destabilizirati emulziju.
  
  	6. Interakcija veziva i otapala
  
  	Svako vezivo ima svoja kompatibilna otapala — ona koja ga pravilno otapaju ili dispergiraju. Upotreba nekompatibilnog otapala može dovesti do: • koagulacije — vezivo se izlučuje iz otopine u obliku grudica • destabilizacije emulzije — boja se razdvaja na faze • lošeg formiranja filma — boja ne veže pravilno, ostaje ljepljiva ili se lupa • otapanja već nanesenih slojeva — posebno problem kod lakova i finalnih premaza Praktični primjer: akrilne boje su na bazi vode. Dodavanje mineralnog terpentina ili terpentina u akrilnu boju neće je razrijediti — izazvat će koagulaciju veziva i uništiti boju. Obrnuto, dodavanje vode u uljanu boju ne razrjeđuje je pravilno — voda i ulje se ne miješaju.
  
  	7. Mediji, aditivi i retarderi
  
  	Mediji su formulirani dodaci koji modificiraju svojstva boje bez narušavanja omjera komponenti. Za akrilne boje to mogu biti: usporivači sušenja (retarteri) koji produljuju otvoreno vrijeme i omogućuju mokro-na-mokro tehnike, tekući mediji koji snižavaju viskoznost uz zadržavanje sjaja, mat mediji koji smanjuju sjaj, ili glazurni mediji koji povećavaju transparentnost. Za uljane boje mediji mogu biti: lak (damar, mastic) koji ubrzava sušenje i daje sjaj, sikativi (sušila) koji kemijski ubrzavaju oksidativnu polimerizaciju, ali čija prekomjerna upotreba može izazvati pucanje filma s vremenom. Opće pravilo: mediji su formulirani za konkretna veziva i ne smiju se koristiti naizmjenično. Medij za akrilne boje neće funkcionirati u uljanoj boji i obrnuto.
  
  	Zaključak
  
  	Vezivo je ono što od pigmenta i otapala pravi boju — ono formira film, drži pigment na podlozi i određuje trajnost premaza. Otapalo kontrolira viskoznost i brzinu sušenja, ali mora biti kompatibilno s vezivom. Razumijevanje ove trojke — pigment, vezivo, otapalo — daje solidan temelj za razumijevanje gotovo svake boje ili premaza s kojim ćete raditi.
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  Dunja Singer, 13.07.2026.
• Principi pigmentacije: Gustoća, viskoznost i pokrivnost - tri različite stvari koje zovemo istim imenom

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  	In discussions about paints, coatings and various masses, one often hears: this paint is thick; — and this can mean three completely different properties. This text explains what each of them actually means, why it is important to distinguish between them and how this difference affects practical decisions such as thinning the paint.
  
  	  
  
  	1. Density — how much material is in a given volume
  
  	Density is a physical property that describes the mass of a material per unit volume. It is measured in grams per milliliter (g/ml) or kilograms per liter (kg/l). Water has a density of about 1 g/ml; metals are much denser, oils somewhat less. Density is a property of a material — it does not change when you stir it, heat it, or cool it. A paint with a density of 1.4 g/ml remains that density whether you stir it with a spoon or let it sit. In the context of paints and coatings, density depends on the composition of the formulation — how much pigment, filler, binder, and solvent is in it. A high density by itself does not tell you anything about how the paint will behave when applied. A good example of the difference between density and viscosity: a salt solution is denser than pure water and sinks, but flows almost as easily. Silicone oil or motor oil, on the other hand, floats on water because it is less dense — yet it is extremely viscous and difficult to flow. Density and viscosity are therefore not the same, nor do they necessarily go together.
  
  	2. Viscosity — resistance to flow
  
  	Viscosity is a rheological property that describes the resistance of a fluid to flow. Honey has a high viscosity — it flows slowly and resists mixing. Water has a low viscosity — it flows easily and without resistance. Viscosity is measured in mPa·s (millipascal-seconds) or cP (centipoise). A key difference from density: viscosity can change without changing the composition of the material. The same material can have different viscosities depending on:
  
  	• temperature — when heated, viscosity decreases (honey flows much more easily at 40°C than at room temperature)
  
  	• shear force — many paints and coatings are so-called pseudoplastic fluids: their viscosity drops when mixed, and returns when at rest (thixotropy)
  
  	• addition of thinner — but this is already an intervention in the formulation, not just a physical correction When someone says that the paint is “too thick to apply,” they are almost always talking about viscosity — about it being difficult to spread or not getting into details. It is not the same as density.
  
  	  
  
  	3. Opacity — an optical property, not a physical one
  
  	Opacity and pigmentation have no direct relationship to viscosity or density. Paint can be thin (low viscosity) and have excellent coverage/pigmentation, or thick (high viscosity) and be completely transparent — viscosity and coverage/pigmentation are independent quantities. A good example is ink: they are low viscosity, but can be extremely pigmented and opaque. A wash is a low viscosity, low pigmentation paint — intentionally formulated that way. Craft paints that are sold cheaply in department stores are often the opposite: high viscosity, but low pigmentation. As described in more detail in the previous article in this series, coverage and pigmentation depend on the refractive index and pigment dispersion — not on how “thick” the paint is.
  
  	4. Why these three terms are confused — and why it’s a problem
  
  	In everyday speech, all three are summed up in one word: “thick.” We say that a paint is thick when we mean that it is viscous, opaque, and pigment-rich — all at once. In practice, this works until problems arise. Typical confusion: the paint is viscous and covers well, so the user perceives it as “thick.” To achieve the desired viscosity for application, it needs to be thinned heavily with water — which lowers the pigment concentration, coverage, and other properties of the formulation. A lower viscosity paint in the same situation requires only minimal adjustment — sometimes literally a drop of water — to make it comfortable to apply, with negligible impact on properties.
  
  	5. How to properly change viscosity — water vs. media from the manufacturer
  
  	When the goal is to lower the viscosity of the paint — to make it more fluid for easier application — there are two approaches: adding water and adding a medium (thinner) that the manufacturer recommends with the paint. Water lowers the viscosity, but at the same time changes the ratio of all components in the formulation:
  
  	• dilutes the binder — the cohesion of the paint film after drying decreases
  
  	• disturbs the pigment/binder ratio — which can affect adhesion, gloss and durability
  
  	• in larger amounts, it can destabilize the formulation — especially emulsion systems The medium from the manufacturer is formulated to lower viscosity while preserving the ratio of binders and additives in the formulation.
  
  	Unlike water, it does not disrupt the stability of the paint film — adhesion, gloss and durability remain within the designed parameters. Coverage and pigmentation fall with the medium as well as with water, but predictably and controlled. The medium sometimes does not lower the viscosity as much as the user would like. If the goal is to greatly reduce coverage and pigmentation, it is recommended to use the manufacturer's medium, and only if additional viscosity correction is needed, add a little water. Paint manufacturers calculate that the user will dilute the paint to some extent with water — in practice, a water content of up to about 10% is most often acceptable. Above this limit, negative effects on film quality begin to be visible.
  
  	Conclusion
  
  	Density, viscosity, and opacity are three independent properties that describe different aspects of a material. Density tells you how much material there is in a volume; viscosity tells you how well that material flows; opacity tells you how much light it transmits or blocks. Mixing these terms in practice leads to wrong conclusions — and wrong actions. Understanding the difference between them helps make better decisions: about how to dilute paint, why a certain formulation covers well or poorly, and what we actually change when we reach for a thinner.
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  	U razgovorima o bojama, premazima i raznim masama često se čuje: ova boja je gusta; — a pritom se može misliti na tri potpuno različita svojstva. Ovaj tekst objašnjava što svako od njih zapravo znači, zašto ih je važno razlikovati i kako ta razlika utječe na praktične odluke poput razrjeđivanja boje.
  
  	  
  
  	1. Gustoća — koliko materijala ima u određenom volumenu
  
  	Gustoća je fizikalno svojstvo koje opisuje masu nekog materijala po jedinici volumena. Mjeri se u gramima po mililitru (g/ml) ili kilogramima po litri (kg/l). Voda ima gustoću oko 1 g/ml; metali su puno gušći, ulja nešto manje. Gustoća je svojstvo materijala — ne mijenja se time što ga miješate, zagrijavate ili hladite. Boja s gustoćom 1,4 g/ml ostaje te gustoće bez obzira miješate li ju žlicom ili je pustite da stoji. U kontekstu boja i premaza, gustoća ovisi o sastavu formulacije — o tome koliko je pigmenta, punila, veziva i otapala u njoj. Visoka gustoća sama po sebi ne govori ništa o tome kako će se boja ponašati pri nanošenju. Dobar primjer razlike između gustoće i viskoznosti: otopina soli gušća je od čiste vode i tone, ali teče gotovo jednako lako. Silikonsko ulje ili motorno ulje, s druge strane, plivaju na vodi jer su manje gusti — a opet su iznimno viskozni i teško teku. Gustoća i viskoznost dakle nisu isto, niti nužno idu zajedno.
  
  	2. Viskoznost — otpor tečenju
  
  	Viskoznost je reološko svojstvo koje opisuje otpor fluida prema tečenju. Med ima visoku viskoznost — teče sporo i pruža otpor miješanju. Voda ima nisku viskoznost — teče lako i bez otpora. Viskoznost se mjeri u mPa·s (milipaskal-sekunda) ili cP (centipoise). Ključna razlika od gustoće: viskoznost se može mijenjati bez promjene sastava materijala. Isti materijal može imati različitu viskoznost ovisno o:
  
  	• temperaturi — zagrijavanjem viskoznost pada (med na 40°C teče puno lakše nego na sobnoj temperaturi)
  
  	• smičnoj sili — mnoge boje i premazi su tzv. pseudoplastični fluidi: pri miješanju im viskoznost pada, a u mirovanju se vraća (tixotropija)
  
  	• dodatku razrjeđivača — ali to je već zahvat u formulaciju, a ne samo fizikalna korekcija Kada netko kaže da je boja „pregusta za nanošenje”, gotovo uvijek govori o viskoznosti — o tome da se teško razmazuje ili ne ulazi u detalje. To nije isto što i gustoća.
  
  	  
  
  	3. Pokrivnost — optičko svojstvo, ne fizikalno
  
  	Pokrivnost i pigmentacija nemaju nikakve izravne veze s viskoznosti ni gustoćom. Boja može biti rijetka (niska viskoznost) i izvrsno pokrivna/pigmentirana, ili gusta (visoka viskoznost) i potpuno prozirna — viskoznost i pokrivnost/pigmentacija su neovisne veličine. Dobar primjer su tinte: niske su viskoznosti, ali mogu biti iznimno bogato pigmentirane i pokrivne. Wash je pak boja niske viskoznosti i niske pigmentacije — namjerno formulirana tako. Craft boje koje se jeftino prodaju u dućanima robe široke potrošnje često su upravo suprotno: visoke viskoznosti, ali niske pigmentacije. Kao što je detaljnije opisano u prethodnom tekstu ove serije, pokrivnost i pigmentacija ovise o indeksu refrakcije i disperziji pigmenta — a ne o tome koliko je boja „gusta”.
  
  	4. Zašto se ova tri pojma brkaju — i zašto je to problem
  
  	U svakodnevnom govoru se sve troje sažima u jednu riječ: "gusto". Kažemo da je boja gusta misleći da je viskozna, pokrivna i bogata pigmentom — sve odjednom. U praksi to funkcionira dok se ne pojave problemi. Tipična zbrka: boja je viskozna i dobro pokriva, pa ju korisnik doživljava kao „gustu”. Da bi postigao željenu viskoznost za nanošenje, treba ju jako razrijediti vodom — a time pada koncentracija pigmenta, pokrivnost i ostala svojstva formulacije. Boja niže viskoznosti u istoj situaciji zahtijeva tek minimalnu korekciju — ponekad doslovno kap vode — da postane ugodna za nanošenje, uz zanemariv utjecaj na svojstva.
  
  	5. Kako pravilno mijenjati viskoznost — voda vs. medij od proizvođača
  
  	Kada je cilj sniziti viskoznost boje — učiniti je tečnijom za lakše nanošenje — postoje dva pristupa: dodavanje vode i dodavanje medija (razrjeđivača) koji proizvođač preporučuje uz tu boju. Voda snižava viskoznost, ali istovremeno mijenja omjer svih komponenti u formulaciji:
  
  	• razrjeđuje vezivo — smanjuje se kohezija filma boje nakon sušenja
  
  	• narušava omjer pigment/vezivo — što može utjecati na adheziju, sjaj i trajnost
  
  	• pri većim količinama može destabilizirati formulaciju — posebno emulzijske sustave Medij od proizvođača je formuliran tako da snizi viskoznost uz očuvanje omjera veziva i aditiva u formulaciji.
  
  	Za razliku od vode, ne narušava stabilnost filma boje — adhezija, sjaj i trajnost ostaju unutar projektiranih parametara.Pokrivnost i pigmentacija padaju i s medijem, kao i s vodom, ali predvidivo i kontrolirano. Medij ponekad ne snizi viskoznost koliko korisnik želi. Ako je cilj jako smanjiti pokrivnost i pigmentaciju, preporučuje se koristiti medij od proizvođača, a tek ako je potrebna dodatna korekcija viskoznosti, dodati malo vode. Proizvođači boja računaju da će korisnik boju do neke mjere razrijediti vodom — u praksi je najčešće prihvatljiv udio vode do oko 10%. Iznad te granice počinju biti vidljivi negativni učinci na kvalitetu filma.
  
  	Zaključak
  
  	Gustoća, viskoznost i pokrivnost su tri neovisna svojstva koja opisuju različite aspekte materijala. Gustoća govori koliko materijala ima u volumenu; viskoznost govori kako taj materijal teče; pokrivnost govori koliko svjetlosti propušta ili blokira. Miješanje ovih pojmova u praksi dovodi do pogrešnih zaključaka — i pogrešnih postupaka. Razumijevanje razlike između njih pomaže donijeti bolje odluke: o tome kako razrijediti boju, zašto neka formulacija dobro ili loše pokriva, i što zapravo mijenjamo kada posežemo za razrjeđivačem.
  "
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  Dunja Singer, 13.07.2026.
• Principi pigmentacije: Efektni pigmenti i efektne boje - kad boja nije samo boja

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      ["title_eng"]=>
      string(95) "Pigmentation principles: Pigments and paints with effects – when a color is not only a color "
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      string(80) "Principi pigmentacije: Efektni pigmenti i efektne boje - kad boja nije samo boja"
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      string(10326) "
  
  	So far in this series, we've talked about pigments that provide color by absorbing and reflecting light. There is, however, a whole group of pigments that don't work on this principle — or complement it in subtle ways. These pigments are collectively called effect pigments, and they are responsible for metallic sheens, pearlescent effects, color changes with viewing angle, and many other visual effects that classic pigments can't reproduce.
  
  	  
  
  	1. What are effect pigments and how do they differ from classic ones?
  
  	Classical pigments are solid particles that absorb certain wavelengths of visible light and reflect others. The color we see is relatively independent of the angle from which we view it and the intensity of the light source — red remains red whether we view it straight on or at an angle. Effect pigments impart color or visual effect by mechanisms that are dependent on geometry — the angle of incidence of light and the angle of view. As a result, their appearance changes with changes in the angle, intensity, or direction of light. It is this dynamism that makes them visually appealing and functionally different from classical pigments. Effect pigments are mostly lamellar — thin, plate-like particles that are oriented parallel to the substrate in the paint film. This orientation is crucial to their visual effect.
  
  	2. Metallic pigments
  
  	Metallic pigments are tiny metal flakes — most often made of aluminum, copper, or bronze — that reflect light like small mirrors. Thanks to their lamellar shape and metallic surface, they achieve high reflectivity and a characteristic metallic sheen that cannot be achieved with classic pigments. Aluminum flakes give a silver metallic effect. They can be uncolored (the natural silver color of aluminum) or colored with interference coatings — then they are called colored metallics and change color with the viewing angle. Copper and bronze flakes give a warm golden or reddish-golden glow, depending on the alloy composition. They are often used in decorative paints, tampons, and miniature paints. Characteristics of metallic pigments:
  
  	• High reflectance — specular reflection that gives a metallic sheen
  
  	• Dependence on particle orientation — poor dispersion or application gives an uneven effect
  
  	• Sensitivity to oxidation — copper and bronze can darken over time without a protective coating
  
  	• Electrical conductivity — aluminum flakes are conductive, which is relevant in some applications
  
  	
  
  	3. Mica and pearlescent pigments
  
  	Mica is a natural mineral that can be cleaved into extremely thin, transparent flakes. The paint industry uses synthetic and natural mica flakes, usually coated with thin layers of metal oxides — most commonly titanium dioxide (TiO₂) or iron oxide. The effect is created by the interference of light: light is reflected on the upper and lower surfaces of a thin oxide layer, and these two reflections mutually enhance or cancel each other depending on the thickness of the layer and the wavelength of the light. By controlling the thickness of the oxide layer, almost any color of the spectrum can be achieved. The thickness of the layer of just a few hundred nanometers determines whether the particle will be gold, blue, green or red. The pearlescent (pearlescent) effect is created when multiple layers of mica of different thicknesses interfere with each other — the result is a deep, multi-layered shine that resembles pearl or shell surfaces. Unlike metallics, mica is not metallic — its particles are transparent and light passes through them. Because of this, mica simultaneously provides a glossy effect and a certain level of transparency, which metallic pigments cannot.
  
  	4. Holographic and chrome pigments
  
  	Holographic pigments contain micron-sized diffraction gratings — surfaces with an extremely regular microstructure that decompose white light into spectral colors. The result is a characteristic rainbow effect that changes rapidly and dramatically with the viewing angle. Each particle is actually a small prismatic element. Chromic (chameleon) pigments are a more advanced version — multilayer structures that display two or more specific colors depending on the viewing angle, unlike the holographic effect that displays the entire spectrum. A typical example is a pigment that appears gold at a right angle and green at a 45° angle. These pigments are particularly challenging to apply — the irregular orientation of the particles in the paint film destroys the effect, so they require careful application and a compatible binder.
  
  	  
  
  	5. Thermochromic and photochromic pigments
  
  	Thermochromic pigments change color with temperature. The mechanism can be different: some use liquid crystals that change structure at a certain temperature, others are based on chemical compounds that reversibly change structure (leuco dyes). Most commercial thermochromic pigments change color at a certain “transition” temperature — below it they have one color, above it another (usually becoming colorless or pale). Photochromic pigments change color upon exposure to UV radiation. Indoors (without UV) they are colorless or pale; in sunlight they become colored. The mechanism is also reversible — the color is restored when the UV source is removed. They are used in sun-darkening glasses, safety inks, and decorative applications. Both types of pigments have limited durability — the color change cycles gradually degrade the active component. They are not suitable for permanent applications exposed to strong UV radiation or high temperatures.
  
  	  
  
  	6. Fluorescent pigments
  
  	Fluorescent pigments absorb light — including UV radiation invisible to the eye — and re-emit it as visible light of a longer wavelength. This process, which we described in the diagram of the interaction of light and matter, is called fluorescence. The result is a characteristic “glowing” color that appears brighter than a normally colored surface — because the pigment not only reflects visible light but also adds emitted light from the UV part of the spectrum. This effect is called daylight fluorescence because it is also visible in ordinary daylight, which contains a UV component. Fluorescent pigments are organic compounds — as a rule, they have poor lightfastness. The UV radiation that activates them also degrades them, so fluorescent colors lose their intensity relatively quickly when exposed to sunlight.
  
  	7. Phosphorescent pigments
  
  	Phosphorescence is similar to fluorescence in that the pigment absorbs energy and emits it as visible light — but unlike fluorescence, the emission persists after the light source is removed. Phosphorescent materials "store" energy in excited electronic states that are slowly discharged, emitting light for minutes or hours. Modern phosphorescent pigments are based mainly on strontium aluminate (SrAl₂O₄) activated with europium and dysprosium. These pigments are significantly more durable and brighter than the older zinc sulfide pigments that have been used for decades, and do not contain radioactive components like earlier "glow-in-the-dark" materials. Phosphorescent pigments are inorganic, which means they have good light fastness and chemical stability. Their color is typically white or slightly yellowish in daylight, and green or blue-green in the dark.
  
  	8. Practical application and disadvantages of effect pigments
  
  	Effect pigments require more care when applying than classic pigments. A few key points:
  
  	• Particle orientation is crucial.
  
  	• The substrate affects the effect.
  
  	• The binder must be compatible.
  
  	• Coverage is limited.
  
  	• Dispersion requires attention. As described in the first article in this series, poor dispersion leads to an uneven effect. With metallic and mica pigments, poor dispersion is visible as shiny dots instead of a uniform shine.
  
  	Conclusion
  
  	Effect pigments extend the possibilities of color far beyond what classical absorption and reflection can achieve. From the metallic luster of aluminum flakes to the pearlescent reflection of interference mica, from the dramatic color change of holographic pigments to the quiet luminescence of phosphorescents — each of these pigments is based on a different physical principle. Understanding these principles helps in selecting the right pigment for the desired effect and in avoiding common application mistakes.
  "
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  	Dosad smo u ovoj seriji govorili o pigmentima koji daju boju apsorpcijom i refleksijom svjetlosti. Postoji, međutim, cijela skupina pigmenata koji ne funkcioniraju na tom principu — ili ga nadopunjuju na neuočljive načine. Ove pigmente zajednički nazivamo efektnim pigmentima, i oni su odgovorni za metalne sjajeve, biserni odsjaj, promjenu boje s kutom gledanja i mnoge druge vizualne efekte koje klasični pigmenti ne mogu reproducirati.
  
  	  
  
  	1. Što su efektni pigmenti i po čemu se razlikuju od klasičnih
  
  	Klasični pigmenti su čvrste čestice koje apsorbiraju određene valne duljine vidljive svjetlosti i reflektiraju ostale. Boja koju vidimo relativno je neovisna o kutu iz kojeg gledamo i o jakosti izvora svjetlosti — crvena boja ostaje crvena bez obzira gledamo li je ravno ili pod kutom. Efektni pigmenti daju boju ili vizualni efekt mehanizmima koji su ovisni o geometriji — o kutu upada svjetlosti i kutu gledanja. Zbog toga se njihov izgled mijenja s promjenom kuta, jakosti ili smjera svjetlosti. Upravo ta dinamičnost čini ih vizualno privlačnima i funkcionalno drukčijima od klasičnih pigmenata. Efektni pigmenti uglavnom su pločasti (lamelarni) oblika — tanke, pločaste čestice koje se u filmu boje oričentiraju paralelno s podlogom. Ta orijentacija ključna je za njihov vizualni učinak.
  
  	2. Metalik pigmenti
  
  	Metalik pigmenti su sitne metalne ljušице — najčešće od aluminija, bakra ili bronce — koje reflektiraju svjetlost poput malih ogledala. Zahvaljujući lamelarnom obliku i metalnoj površini, postižu visoku refleksiju i karakterističnu metalnu blistavost koja se ne može postići klasičnim pigmentima. Aluminijske ljušice daju srebrni metalik efekt. Mogu biti neobojen (prirodna srebrna boja aluminija) ili obojene interferentnim premazima — tada se nazivaju obojeni metalici i mijenjaju boju s kutom gledanja. Bakarne i brončane ljušice daju topli zlatni ili crvenkasto-zlatni odsjaj, ovisno o sastavu legure. Često se koriste u dekorativnim bojama, tamponima i bojama za minijature. Karakteristike metalik pigmenata:
  
  	• Visoka refleksija — specijarna (zrcalna) refleksija koja daje metalnu blistavost
  
  	• Ovisnost o orijentaciji čestica — loša disperzija ili nanošenje daje neravnomjeran efekt
  
  	• Osjetljivost na oksidaciju — bakar i bronca mogu potamniti s vremenom bez zaštitnog premaza
  
  	• Električna vodljivost — aluminijske ljušice su vodljive, što je relevantno u nekim primjenama
  
  	
  
  	3. Mica i perlescentni pigmenti
  
  	Mica je prirodni mineral koji se može cijepati u iznimno tanke, providne listiće. U industriji boja koriste se sintetski i prirodni listici mice, obično prevučeni tankim slojevima metalnih oksida — najčešće titan-dioksida (TiO₂) ili oksida željeza. Efekt nastaje interferencijom svjetlosti: svjetlost se reflektira na gornjoj i donjoj površini tankog oksidnog sloja, a te se dvije refleksije međusobno pojačavaju ili poništavaju ovisno o debljini sloja i valnoj duljini svjetlosti. Kontrolom debljine oksidnog sloja može se postići gotovo svaka boja spektra. Debljina sloja od samo nekoliko stotina nanometara određuje hoće li čestica biti zlatna, plava, zelena ili crvena. Perlescentni (biserasti) efekt nastaje kada više slojeva mice različitih debljina međusobno interferiraju — rezultat je duboki, višeslojni sjaj koji podsjeća na biserne ili školjkaste površine. Za razliku od metalika, mica nije metalna — njezine čestice su prozirne i svjetlost prolazi kroz njih. Zbog toga mica istovremeno daje i efekt sjaja i određenu razinu prozirnosti, što metalik pigmenti ne mogu.
  
  	4. Holografski i kromski pigmenti
  
  	Holografski pigmenti sadrže mikronske difrakcijske rešetke — površine s izuzetno pravilnom mikrostrukturom koja razlaže bijelu svjetlost na spektralne boje. Rezultat je karakteristični dugini efekt koji se brzo i dramatično mijenja s kutom gledanja. Svaka čestica zapravo je mali prizmatski element. Kromski (chameleon) pigmenti su naprednija inačica — višeslojne strukture koje prikazuju dvije ili više određenih boja ovisno o kutu gledanja, za razliku od holografskog efekta koji prikazuje cijeli spektar. Tipičan primjer je pigment koji izgleda zlatno pod pravim kutom i zeleno pod kutom od 45°. Ovi pigmenti posebno su zahtjevni za primjenu — neredovita orijentacija čestica u filmu boje uništava efekt, pa zahtijevaju pažljivo nanošenje i kompatibilno vezivo.
  
  	  
  
  	5. Termokromni i fotokromni pigmenti
  
  	Termokromni pigmenti mijenjaju boju s promjenom temperature. Mehanizam može biti različit: neki koriste tekuće kristale koji mijenjaju strukturu pri određenoj temperaturi, drugi se temelje na kemijskim spojevima koji reverzibilno mijenjaju strukturu (leukobojila). Većina komercijalnih termokromnih pigmenata mijenja boju pri određenoj „prijelaznoj“ temperaturi — ispod nje imaju jednu boju, iznad nje drugu (obično postaju bezbojna ili blijeda). Fotokromni pigmenti mijenjaju boju izlaganjem UV zračenju. U zatvorenom prostoru (bez UV) su bezbojna ili blijeda; na suncu postaju obojeni. Mehanizam je takoer reverzibilan — boja se vraća uklanjanjem UV izvora. Koriste se u naočalama koje se tamne na suncu, sigurnosnim tintama i dekorativnim primjenama. Oba tipa pigmenata imaju ograničenu trajnost — ciklusi promjene boje postupno degradiraju aktivnu komponentu. Nisu pogodni za trajne primjene izložene jakom UV zračenju ili visokim temperaturama.
  
  	  
  
  	6. Fluorescentni pigmenti
  
  	Fluorescentni pigmenti apsorbiraju svjetlost — uključujići UV zračenje nevidljivo oku — i ponovno je emitiraju kao vidljivo svjetlo više valne duljine. Ovaj proces, koji smo opisali u dijagramu interakcije svjetlosti i tvari, naziva se fluorescencija. Rezultat je karakteristična „sijajuća“ boja koja izgleda svjetlija od obično obojene površine — jer pigment ne samo reflektira vidljivu svjetlost nego i dodaje emitiranu svjetlost iz UV dijela spektra. Taj efekt se naziva dnevna fluorescencija (daylight fluorescence) jer se vidi i na običnom dnevnom svjetlu koje sadrži UV komponentu. Fluorescentni pigmenti su organski spojevi — u pravilu imaju lošu svjetlostalnost. UV zračenje koje ih aktivira istovremeno ih i degradira, pa fluorescentne boje relativno brzo gube intenzitet izložene suncu.
  
  	7. Fosforescenti pigmenti
  
  	Fosforescencija je slična fluorescenciji u tome što pigment apsorbira energiju i emitira je kao vidljivo svjetlo — ali za razliku od fluorescencije, emisija traje i nakon uklanjanja izvora svjetlosti. Fosforescenti materijali „pohrane“ energiju u pobuđenim elektroničnim stanjima koja se sporo prazne, emitirajći svjetlo minutama ili satima. Suvremeni fosforescenti pigmenti temelje se uglavnom na stroncijevom aluminatu (SrAl₂O₄) aktiviranom europijem i disprozijumom. Ovi pigmenti znatno su trajniji i svjetliji od starijih cinkovih sulfidnih pigmenata koji su se koristili desetljećima, i ne sadrže radioaktivne komponente kao raniji „svijetleci u mraku“ materijali. Fosforescenti pigmenti su anorganski, što znači da imaju dobru svjetlostalnost i kemijsku stabilnost. Boja im je u pravilu bijela ili blago žutača pod dnevnim svjetlom, a zelena ili plavo-zelena u mraku.
  
  	8. Praktična primjena i mane efektnih pigmenata
  
  	Efektni pigmenti zahtijevaju više pažnje pri primjeni nego klasični pigmenti. Nekoliko ključnih napomena:
  
  	• Orijentacija čestica je ključna.
  
  	• Podloga utječe na efekt.
  
  	• Vezivo mora biti kompatibilno.
  
  	• Pokrivnost je ograničena.
  
  	• Disperzija zahtijeva pažnju. Kao što je opisano u prvom tekstu ove serije, loša disperzija dovodi do neravnomjernog efekta. Kod metalik i mica pigmenata loša disperzija vidljiva je kao sjajne točkice umjesto ravnomjernog sjaja.
  
  	Zaključak
  
  	Efektni pigmenti proširuju mogućnosti boje daleko izvan onoga što klasična apsorpcija i refleksija mogu postići. Od metalnog sjaja aluminijskih ljušica do bisernog odsjaja interference mice, od dramatične promjene boje holografskih pigmenata do tihe luminiscencije fosforescenata — svaki od ovih pigmenata temelji se na drukčijem fizikalnom principu. Razumijevanje tih principa pomaže pri odabiru pravog pigmenta za željeni efekt i pri izbjegavanju uobičajenih grešaka pri primjeni.
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      string(6) "Singer"
      ["first_name_mask"]=>
      string(5) "dunja"
      ["last_name_mask"]=>
      string(6) "singer"
      ["username"]=>
      string(5) "Dunja"
      ["password"]=>
      string(40) "772414a5d6b32309f32f46e9009f1e550809c62d"
      ["born"]=>
      string(19) "2006-01-01 00:00:00"
      ["created"]=>
      NULL
    }
  }
          

  Dunja Singer, 13.07.2026.
• Nastupili smo na: Isle of Wonders 2026. na Cresu

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      ["member_id"]=>
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      ["title_eng"]=>
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      ["title_hrv"]=>
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      ["mask_eng"]=>
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      ["content_eng"]=>
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  	On June 27-29 we attended the Isle of Wonders convention held on the island of Cres. 
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	I took part in their miniature painting competition which boasted over 50 works. I'm proud to say I managed to snag a Highly Commended medal!
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  "
      ["content_hrv"]=>
      string(3158) "
  
  	27.-29. lipnja nastupili smo na konvenciji Isle of Wonders koja se održala na otoku Cresu. 
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	Natjecala sam se na njihovom natjecanju u bojanju minijatura. Ukupno je bilo preko 50 radova, a ja sam uspjela osvojiti "highly commended" medalju!
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  "
      ["created"]=>
      string(19) "2026-07-06 12:50:47"
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      ["first_name"]=>
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      ["last_name"]=>
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  Ili Said, 06.07.2026.
• Nastupili smo na: 13. Trofeju San Giusto 2026.

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    ["Article"]=>
    array(10) {
      ["id"]=>
      string(3) "517"
      ["member_id"]=>
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      ["title_eng"]=>
      string(40) "We attended: 13. Trofeo San Giusto 2026."
      ["title_hrv"]=>
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      ["content_eng"]=>
      string(6970) "
  
  	On June 20-21 we attended 13th Trofeo San Giusto in Trieste, Italy. 
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	It was held in Palazzo Vivante in the heart of Trieste and gathered miniature painters from Spain, Italy, France, England, Germany, Austria and I was the only participant in the miniature painting part of the competition from Croatia
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	As always we awarded the best of show prize as voted by our members. This time the prize went to Mr Alessandro Baialardo from Italy. And I managed to walk away with a gold, a silver and four bronze medals in Standard categories.
  
  	
  "
      ["content_hrv"]=>
      string(7180) "
  
  	20. i 21. lipnja nastupili smo na 13. Trofeo San Giusto u Trstu u Italiji. 
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	Natjecanje se održavalo u predivnoj palači Vivante u samom centru Trsta i okupilo je minijaturiste iz Španjolse, Italije, Francuske, Engleske, Njemačke, Austrije, a ja sam bio jedini na minijaturističkom dijelu natjecanja koji je branio boje Hrvatske. 
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	
  
  	Kao i uvijek na velikim natjecanjima, pripala mi je čast da dodijelim Best of Show nagradu po izboru članova UMS Agram. Ovoga puta, nagrada je otišla u ruke g. Alessandra Baialarda iz Italije koji je dobio naš ekskluzivni trofej Crne kraljice, monografiju o Udruzi te bocu Teranina. Na kraju uspio sam osvojiti zlato, srebro i četiri bronce u Standardnim kategorijama. 
  
  	
  "
      ["created"]=>
      string(19) "2026-07-06 10:37:44"
      ["modified"]=>
      string(19) "2026-07-06 10:37:44"
    }
    ["Member"]=>
    array(10) {
      ["id"]=>
      string(2) "35"
      ["group_id"]=>
      string(1) "1"
      ["first_name"]=>
      string(5) "Marko"
      ["last_name"]=>
      string(9) "Paunović"
      ["first_name_mask"]=>
      string(5) "marko"
      ["last_name_mask"]=>
      string(8) "paunovic"
      ["username"]=>
      string(5) "marko"
      ["password"]=>
      string(40) "3bd37b326d19d1880d3b93a4b32e8fb3a90fa122"
      ["born"]=>
      string(19) "2033-03-07 20:35:00"
      ["created"]=>
      string(19) "2009-06-02 20:37:03"
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  }
          

  Marko Paunović, 06.07.2026.

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